',  1910. 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF   AGRICULTURE, 

OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS-FARMERS'  INSTITUTE  LECTURE  11. 

A.  C.  TRUE,  Dire< 


SYLLABUS 

OF 

ILLUSTRATED   LECTURE 

ON 

WHEAT  CULTURE. 


By 

J.  I.  SCHULTE, 

0/  the  Office  of  Experiment  Statio?is. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTING   OFFICE. 
1910. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATED  LECTURES. 


i  ure  on  the  Ca1 
on.    Pp.  12.    1904. 
1  Lecture  on  Potat 

By  F.  C.  Stewart 

iabus  of  II  ure  on  Acid  So 

em  slides     By  IT.  J.  \\  1904. 

Farau                ate  Lecture  4.    Syllabu  ture  on  Profitable  I 

Feeding,  accompanied  with  45  lam  B.  Mumford. 
3905. 
Farmc               nte  Lecture  3.    Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture  on  Silage  and  Sa- 
nction for                         '''ompanie1 

Fanru  ite  Lecture  6. 

Field  Experimentation,  accompanied  with  32  lantern  slides.    By  C 
Thome.    Pp.  24.     i 
Farmc  ite  Lecture  7.    Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture  on  Roads  and  Road 

Building,  accompanied  with  41  lantern  slides.    By  the  Office  of  Public  Roads, 
S.  Department  of  Agriculture.    Pp.  16.    1907. 
Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  8.    Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture  on  Farm  Architecture, 

accompanied  with  48  lantern  slides.     By  Elmina  T.  Wilson.    Pp.  19.     1907. 
Farmer-'  Instit  Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture  on  Tobacco  Growing, 

..<  !  with  46  lautera  elides.     By  J.  N.  Harper.     Pp.15.     1907. 
Farm<  ire  10.    Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture  on  the  Production 

and  Market!  impanied  with  44  lantern  slides.    By 

eg.     Pp.20.     1909. 
No.  n 


1247  Issued  March  29,  1910. 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF   AGRICULTURE, 

OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS— FARMERS'  INSTITUTE  LECTURE  11. 

A.  C.  TRUE,  Director. 


SYLLABUS 

OF 

ILLUSTRATED   LECTURE 

ON 

WHEAT  CULTURE. 


By 

J.  I.  SCHULTE, 

Of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 
1910. 


RHl'ATMRY  NOTE. 


This  syllabus  of  a  lecture  upon  Wheat  Culture,  by  J.  I.  Schulte,  of 
the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  La  accompanied  by  45  views  illus- 
trating this  topic.  The  syllabus  and  views  have  been  prepared  for 
the  purpose  of  aiding  farmers'  institute  lecturers  in  their  presenta- 
tion of  this  subject  before  institute  audiences. 

The  numbers  in  the  margins  of  the  pages  of  the  syllabus  refer  to 
similar  numbers  on  the  lantern  slides  and  to  their  legends  as  given  in 
the  Appendix;  those  in  the  body  of  the  text  refer  to  the  list  of 
authorities  and  references,  page  22. 

In  order  that  those  using  the  lecture  may  have  opportunity  to 
fully  acquaint  themselves  with  the  subject,  references  to  its  recent 
literature  are  given  in  the  Appendix. 

Johx  Hamilton, 
Farmers   Institute  Specialist. 

Recommended  for  publication. 
A.  C.  True,  Director. 

Publication  authorized. 

James  Wilsox,  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

Washington,  D.  C,  January  12,  1910. 

xo.  ii  (2) 


WHEAT  CULTURE. 


By  J.  I.  Schulte. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Wheat  is  the  world's  choicest  bread  crop  and  the  source  of 
one  of  the  principal  foods  of  the  most  progressive  and  intelli- 
gent nations.  Rice  is  the  only  other  crop  used  by  a  larger 
portion  of  the  human  family.  The  United  States  is  the  lead- 
ing wheat-producing  country  of  the  world,  and  it  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  its  rank  in  this  respect  be  maintained. 
Year  by  year  the  home  requirements  are  growing,  and  as  pro- 
duction is  not  increasing  at  the  same  rate  as  consumption,  the 
time  is  approaching  when  it  will  be  necessary  to  place  wheat 
production  on  a  more  efficient  basis.  Heretofore,  the  total 
3rield  has  been  increased  by  bringing  new  lands  under  cultiva- 
tion and  devoting  them  to  wheat  culture,  but  now  as  the 
virgin  area  suitable  for  this  purpose  has  been  largely  reduced 
and  has  become  a  much  weaker  factor  in  this  connection,  it  is 
highly  important  that  attention  be  given  to  increasing  the  aver- 
age yield  per  acre.  This  is  at  present  only  about  14  bushels, 
while  in  England,  Germany,  and  some  other  European  coun- 
tries it  is  double  this  quantity  and  even  more.  With  the 
average  yield  per  acre  of  England,  this  country  would  be 
capable  of  more  than  doubling  its  annual  total  production. 
The  wheat  soils  of  this  country  can  be  made  as  productive  as 
those  of  other  countries,  and  to  bring  this  about  is  one  of  the 
important  problems  of  American  agriculture. 

HISTORY. 

Wheat  is  probably  a  native  of  western  Asia,  and  its  culti- 
vation is  very  ancient.  The  Chinese  are  said  to  have  grown 
wheat  2,500  years  before  the  Christian  era,  and  the  plant  is 
also  known  by  different  names  in  most  ancient  languages. 
Furthermore,  the  grain  itself  has  been  found  in  prehistoric 

No.  11  (3) 


View. 


works  and  monuments.  So  far  as  known,  the  crop  was  not 
grown  in  America  before  the  discovery  by  Columbus.  (Ref.l, 
pp,  354  359.) 

GROWTH  AND  REQUIREMENTS. 

Like  most  plants,  wheat  requires  moisture,  air,  light,  heat, 

and  plant  food  for  its  development.     All  of  these  factors  are 

more  or  teas  under  control.  Moisture  under  certain  condi- 
tions is  regulated  by  drainage  and  irrigation.  Air  is  admitted 
into  the  soil  by  means  of  drainage  and  tillage.  Light,  which 
in  genera]  can  be  profitably  controlled  on  small  areas  only,  has 
free  access  to  the  parts  of  the  plants  which  require  it.  The 
degree  of  heat  necessary  for  germination  and  growth  is  influ- 
enced to  a  certain  extent  by  the  choice  of  the  season  for  plant- 
ing, and  plant  food  is  supplied  from  the  quantity  of  nutritive 
elements  naturally  stored  in  the  soil  and  maintained  and  re- 
plenished by  the  different  methods  of  soil  fertilization. 

The  plant  body  is  composed  of  cells  containing  during  their 
life  a  substance  called  protoplasm.  This  substance  has  the 
remarkable  powTer  of  changing  the  foods  taken  up  by  the  plant 
into  the  substances  used  in  building  up  the  cell  wall  and  into 
those  of  which  the  protoplasm  itself  is  composed. 

Two  general  groups  of  substances  are  formed  within  the 
plant,  namely,  the  carbohydrates  and  the  proteids.  The  carbo- 
hydrates, of  which  starch  and  sugar  are  good  examples,  are 
composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  while  the  proteids 
contain  nitrogen,  and  sometimes  also  sulphur  and  phosphorus 
in  addition  to  these  three  elements.  Much  of  this  elaborated 
material  is  used  in  the  nourishment  and  growth  of  the  plant, 
while  the  surplus  is  stored  in  bulbs,  roots,  fruits,  and  seeds, 
the  case  may  be.  While  some  of  this  material  is  formed  and 
used  in  other  parts  of  the  plant,  a  portion  of  it  is  carried  in  a 
soluble  form  to  the  storage  organs,  where  in  some  cases  it  is 
deposited  in  solid  form.  In  wheat  and  other  grains  the 
storage  organ  is  the  kernel. 

By  growth  of  the  plant  we  imderstand  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  cells  in  the  plant  structure.  The  building  up  of 
organic  substances,  such  as  carbohydrates  and  proteids,  from 
the  elements  of  organic  and  inorganic  material,  is  the  most 
important  part  of  the  process.  Water  taken  up  by  the  roots 
moves  within  the  plant  through  the  ducts  and  the  cell  walls, 
according  to  the  laws  of  capillarity,  osmosis,  and  diffusion,  and 
passes  out  through  the  leaves. 

The  water,  on  entering  the  roots,  carries  inorganic  matter  in 
solution,  and  gases,  especially  carbon  dioxid,  are  taken  into  the 
No.  11 


leaves  from  the  air.  As  this  material  is  subjected  in  the  leaves 
to  the  combined  action  of  light  and  chlorophyll,  the  formation 
of  the  carbohydrates  takes  place.  Less  is  known  about  the 
formation  of  proteids,  but  it  is  believed  that  they  are  formed 
in  the  leaves  much  in  the  same  way  as  the  carbohydrates, 
although  light  does  not  act  so  directly  in  their  production. 
The  proteids  are  produced  in  much  smaller  quantities  than 
carbohydrates,  but  they  are  nevertheless  of  greatest  impor- 
tance to  the  life  of  the  plant.  (Refs.  2,  pp.  1-20;  3,  pp.  152- 
267.) 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLANT. 

GERMINATION. 

The  vegetative  life  of  the  plant  begins  with  the  germination 
of  the  seed,  and  for  this  process  moisture,  air,  and  the  proper 
temperature,  all  operative  at  the  same  time,  are  required. 
The  parts  of  the  wheat  kernel  of  prime  importance  in  germina- 
tion are  the  embryo  or  germ,  which  develops  to  form  the  young 
plant,  and  the  endosperm  or  starchy  reserve  material,  which 
serves  as  the  source  of  food  to  the  embryo  in  the  first  stages  of 
growth.  The  embryo  is  composed  of  a  vegetative  portion,  or 
that  part  containing  in  minute  form  the  leaves  and  roots  of  the 
new  plant,  and  the  scutellum,  which  during  germination  brings 
the  starch  or  flour  of  the  endosperm  into  solution  and  transfers 
it  to  the  growing  parts. 

The  first  step  in  germination  is  the  absorption  of  water,  of 
which  the  wheat  kernel  takes  up  from  five  to  six  times  its  own 
weight.  The  outer  layers  of  the  kernel  are  ruptured  and  the 
vegetative  portion  of  the  embryo  begins  to  develop  its  minute 
leaves  and  roots  by  means  of  the  food  derived  from  the  endo- 
sperm, until  finally  parts  of  the  young  plant  appear  above 
ground  and  become  green,  thus  showing  that  chlorophyll  or 
leaf-green  has  been  formed.  The  chlorophyll  is  a  substance 
playing  an  important  part  in  the  formation  of  new  organic 
matter  in  the  plant.  (Ref.  2,  p.  13.)  At  this  stage  the  roots 
begin  to  take  up  inorganic  matter  held  in  solution  in  the  soil 
water,  which  they  absorb,  and  under  the  action  of  air  and  light 
the  young  plant  changes  these  substances  into  the  organic 
matter  of  plant  tissue.  All  the  nutritive  material  in  the 
endosperm  has  now  been  consumed.  The  process  of  germina- 
tion is  completed  and  the  plant  is  self-supporting.  (Ref.  3, 
pp.  21-24.) 

No.  11 


View. 


THE  ROOTS. 

The  germinating  kernel  of  wheat  produces  a  whorl  of  throe 
small  temporary  roots,  which  are  followed  by  a  set  of  perma- 
nent roots  thrown  out  from  the  crown,  a  joint  or  group  of  joints 
in  t  he  young  stem  usually  about  an  inch  below  the  surface  of  the 
soil.      'The  depth  of  the  crown  is  Influenced  principally  by  the 

depth  of  planting.     Koots  may  start  from  any  joint  or  node 

below  or  near  the  toj)  of  the  ground.       In  the  early  stages  of  the 

plant  the  development  of  the  roots  is  much  greater  than  the 
growth  of  the  leaves,  the  roots  often  having  obtained  a  Length 

of  20  inches  when  the  portion  of  the  plant  above  the  ground  i^ 

not  over  5  inches  in  height.  The  permanent  root  system  is 
fibrous  and  branching,  the  branches  occurring  mainly  in  the 
upper  2  feet  of  soil.     Wheat  is  commonly  considered  a  short - 

2  rooted  plant,  but  its  roots  extend  from  4  to  5  feet  into  the 
ground  and  go  much  deepen-  than  those  of  the  ordinary  hav 
grasses.  A  copious  and  continued  moisture  supply  in  the  -oil 
tends  to  produce  shallow-rooted  plants,  while  smaller  and 
barely  suilicient  supplies  of  soil  water  favor  deeper  rooting. 
The  crop  does  not  thrive  where  conditions  of  the  subsoil,  such 
as  a  hardpan  too  near  the  surface,  interfere  with  the  devel- 
opment of  the  root  system.  (Refs.  4,  p.  8;  5,  p.  405.)  If 
the  seeding  is  shallow  the  temporary  and  the  permanent 
roots  form  practically  a  single  tuft,  but  if  the  seeding  is  deep 
the  permanent  roots  or  those  growing  from  the  crown  are  often 
from  one-half  to  2  or  3  inches  above  the  temporary  whorl.  As 
soon  as  the  permanent  roots  have  become  well  established,  the 
temporary  roots  and  the  seed  kernel  are  no  longer  of  any 
benefit  to  the  growing  plant  and  may  be  removed  without 
injury. 

THE  STEMS. 

The  structure  of  the  stems  or  culms  varies  witli  the  kind  of 

3  wheat.  In  some  types  the  stems  are  thin-walled  and  hollow 
and  in  others  either  thick-walled  or  pithy.  (Ref.  6,  pp.  26-36.) 
In  all  types  the  stems  are  jointed,  the  joints  being  known  as  the 
nodes  and  the  parts  between  the  joints  as  the  internodes.  The 
first  stem,  or  the  one  growing  up  directly  from  the  seed,  does  not 
always  reach  complete  development,  but  a  number  of  other 
stems  are  thrown  up  from  the  crown  and  grow  up  to  maturity. 
This  action  of  the  plant,  known  as  tillering  or  stooling,  varies 
with  the  variety  and  the  season.  At  full  growth  well-devel- 
oped wheat  plants  are  from  3  to  5  feet  high,  with  about  five 

4  to  six  internodes  in  the  erect  portion  of  the  stem. 

No.  11 


THE  LEAVES. 

The  leaves  consist  of  the  sheath,  the  Made,  the  ligule,  and  5 

the  auricle.  The  sheath  starts  from  the  nodes  or  joints  and 
clasps  the  stem.  The  opening  of  the  sheath  is  on  the  opposite 
side  from  the  blade,  which  is  the  part  extending  outward  from 
the  stem  and  which  varies  in  size,  shape,  texture,  and  venal  ion. 
The  ligule  is  a  thin,  transparent  tissue,  clasping  the  stem 
where  the  blade  and  the  sheath  join,  and  the  auricle  is  a  fine, 
hairy  projection  located  at  the  base  of  the  blade.  (Ref.  7, 
p.  18,  pi.  3.)  The  first  leaves,  which  come  from  the  crown, 
are  set  close  together,  being  produced  from  the  nodes  before 
the  internodes  have  lengthened.  As  the  stem  or  stems  grow 
up  the  leaves  become  larger  and  are  distributed  at  intervals, 
marking  the  length  of  the  internodes.  6 

THE  HEAD  OR  SPIKE. 

The  head  of  wheat  consists  of  the  rachis,  which  is  a  notched  7 

extension  of  the  stem,  and  the  spikelets  arranged  upon  it. 
The  notches  or  angles  correspond  to  the  nodes  and  the  short 
sections  separating  the  notches  to  the  internodes.  When  the 
internodes  of  the  rachis  are  short  the  heads  are  compact  or  8 

crowded,  and  when  they  are  long  the  heads  are  said  to  be  open. 
The  spikelets  are  the  flower  clusters,  which  ultimately  produce  9 

the  grain.  Their  number  ranges  from  8  to  10  on  each  side  of 
the  rachis  in  some  varieties,  and  from  10  to  16  in  others.  Each 
spikelet  as  a  rule  has  five  flowers,  but  the  upper  or  odd  one  is 
rarely  fertile.     (Ref.  8,  pp.  31-33.) 

THE  FLOWER  OR  BLOSSOM. 

The  flower  or  blossom  consists  of  the  reproductive  organs,  10 
namely,  the  ovary,  the  pistil,  and  the  stamens.  The  ovary 
is  the  rudimentary  grain  of  wheat  and  with  the  pistil  constitutes 
the  female  portion  of  the  blossom,  while  the  stamens  represent 
the  male  element.  The  pistil  branches  into  two  feathery 
styles.  The  upper  feathery  portion  constituting  the  stigmas 
is  borne  on  the  ovary,  while  the  stamens,  of  which  there  are 
three,  have  their  filaments  inserted  around  the  base  of  the 
ovary  and  extend  around  and  above  it  so  that  the  antlers  are 
placed  around  the  pistil.     (Ref.  9,  p.  50.) 

THE  GRAIN. 

The  kernel  of  wheat  is  the  fruit  of  the  plant.  Its  outer  cov- 
ering is  made  up  of  two  layers,  the  outer  the  epiderm  or  peri- 
carp, and  the  inner  the  endocarp.  Beneath  these  layers  is  the 
testa  or  seed  covering,  and  all  three  of  these  coverings  go  to 

No.  u 


8 


make  up  the  bran  in  milling  and  constitute  about  5  per  cent  of 
the  enl  ire  grain.  Immediately  under  the  testa  or  seed  covering 
is  a  Layer  of  cells  rich  in  gluten,  which,  in  milling,  is  partly 

removed  with  the  bran  and  contributes  Largely  to  the  feeding 
value  of  this  product.  'Hie  interior  portion  of  the  grain  sur- 
rounded by  the  gluten  cells,  called  the  endosperm,  is  composed 
mostly  of  starch,  hut  contains  also  some  gluten  and  other  albu- 
minoid substances.     The  endosperm,  which  constitutes  about 

7")  per  cent  of  the  kernel,  is  the  source  of  Hour.  The  germ, 
which  is  located  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  furrow  or  crease 
and  at  the  end  opposite  to  the  brush  or  hairy  tip.  forms  only 

11  a  small  pari   of  the  kernel.      (Kef.  8,  pp.  33-36.)      The  grain 

12  varies  in  .size  and  shape  with  the  type  and  the  variety. 

COMPOSITION. 

The  composition  of  the  wheat  plant  is  influenced  by  variety, 
climate,  and  soil.  Normally  the  grain  of  wheat  contains  about 
10  per  cent  of  wTater,  2  per  cent  of  ash.  12  per-  cent  of  protein, 
2  per  cent  of  fiber,  72  per  cent  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  2 
per  cent  of  fat.  The  gluten  content  is  included  under  pro- 
tein and  the  starch  content  under  nitrogen-free  extract. 
The  gluten  is  a  mixture  of  two  proteids,  gliadin  and  glutenin, 
and  its  quantity  and  quality  determine  the  value  of  the  grain 
for  baking  purposes.  The  quality  of  the  gluten  is  governed 
to  some  extent  by  the  proportion  of  gliadin  and  glutenin — a 
gluten  consisting  approximately  of  one-fourth  glutenin  and 
three-fourths  gliadin  being  considered  most  satisfactory.  The 
starch  is  almost  wholly  located  in  the  endosperm,  which  con- 
stitutes about  75  per  cent  of  the  entire  kernel,  and  nearly  all  of 
which  is  made  into  flour  in  the  process  of  milling.  The  gluten 
content  is  usually  only  from  1  to  2  per  cent  lower  than  the 
total  protein  content  of  the  grain  and  the  nitrogen-free  extract 
is  largely  made  up  of  starch,  the  amount  of  winch  varies  from 
60  to  70  per  cent,     (Ref.  10.) 

Ordinarily  the  straw7,  including  the  chaff,  constitutes  from 
50  to  65  per  cent  and  the  grain  from  35  to  50  per  cent  of  the 
wheat  plant.  The  straw  contains  normally  from  10  to  15  per 
cent  of  moisture,  and  in  addition  approximately  4  per  cent  of 
ash,  3.5  per  cent  of  protein,  40  per  cent  of  crude  fiber  or  cellu- 
lose, 45  per  cent  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  1.5  per  cent  of 
fat.  (Ref.  11,  p.  34.)  The  chaff  contains  more  phosphoric 
acid  and  also  a  little  more  protein  but  less  crude  fiber  than  the 
straw. 

No.  n 


TYPES  AND  VARIETIES. 


The  varieties  of  wheal  arc  divided  into  groups  according  to 
botanical  characters,  and  these  are  in  some  cases  again  divided 
according  to  characteristics  due  to  environment  or  geograph- 
ical distribution.  (Refs.  6,  pp.  26-37;  12,  p.  6.)  The  numer-  13 
ous  types  and  varieties,  arid  their  differentiating  character-  14 
istics,  have  given  rise  to  a  distinct  terminology  used  in  their 
description.     (Ref.  7,  pp.  11-16.) 

Owing  to  the  wide  geographical  distribution  of  the  plant, 
the  varieties  of  wheat  are  more  numerous  than  those  of  any 
other  cereal.  In  addition  to  the  botanical  classification,  a 
number  of  other  classifications  are  in  use,  as,  for  instance,  the 
market  classification  embracing  the  different  types  recognized 
by  the  grain  markets,  such  as  soft  winter,  hard  winter,  hard 
spring,  and  white  wheats;  the  classification  based  on  external 
characters,  which  groups  the  varieties  into  spring  and  winter 
wheats,  bearded  or  awned,  and  beardless  or  bald  varieties, 
white  and  red  wheats,  hard  and  soft  sorts,  early  and  late  varie- 
ties, etc.  The  soft  wheats  are  also  called  starchy  wheats  and  15 
the  hard  wheats  glutinous  wheats.  The  bread  wheats  include 
all  varieties  excepting  those  used  in  the  preparation  of  maca- 
roni, spaghetti,  and  other  pastes.     (Ref.  6,  p.  27.) 

Varieties  of  wheat  differ  greatly  in  productiveness,  hardiness, 
drought  resistance,  resistance  to  lodging,  quality  of  grain,  and 
in  other  characters.  There  are  always  best  varieties  for  cer- 
tain soils  and  regions  but  no  varieties  that  succeed  best  under 
all  conditions.  It  costs  no  more  tog  row  a  good  variety  than  a 
poor  one,  and  it  is  therefore  to  the  farmer's  interest  to  secure 
the  best  sort  for  his  locality.  All  varieties  grown  in  the  vicinity 
should  be  observed  and  the  best  one  selected.  Such  a  variety 
is  more  likely  to  give  satisfactory  results  than  one  brought 
from  a  distance  because  there  will  be  little  or  no  change  in  its 
environment. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  VARIETIES. 

Wheat  varieties  are  improved  mainly  by  selection  and 
crossing.  Improvement  by  selection  comprises  the  selection 
of  seed  and  the  selection  of  individual  plants.  (Refs.  6,  pp. 
65-68;  25,  pp.  8-10.)  Varieties  may  be  improved  by  selec- 
tion or  by  crossing  and  selection  together.  Most  varieties 
now  grown  are  the  result  of  simple  selection,  and  this  kind  of 
work  is  often  very  profitable  and  replete  with  satisfaction. 
(Ref.  13,  p.  6.)  Dawson  Golden  Chaff,  for  instance,  had  its 
origin  in  a  single  stool  of  White  Clawson  wheat  winch  had  been 
the  only  one  to  survive  the  winter  in  a  bare  and  exposed  posi- 
25538— Xo.  11—10 2 


10 


tion.     This  variety  has  given  excellent  results  in  New  York, 
Michigan,  and  Canada,  and  is  a  standard  sort  in  many  Locali- 
ties.    This  instance  is  one  of   the  many  showing  the  impor- 
tance of  selecting  individual  plants. 
The  crossing  of  varieties  is  effected  by  means  of  artificial 
1(>        crOSS-fertilization.     The  stamens  must    be  removed  from  the 
17        blossom  before  the  pollen  Backs  are  mature  enough  to  break 
and  to  pollinate  the  pistil.     After  this  is  done  the  pistil  must 
be  protected  from  the  pollen  of  other  flowers  borne  either  in 
the  same  or  in  other  heads.      Usually  all  the  flowers  not   de- 
ls       sired  for  crossing  are   removed   and   the  entire  head  is  then 
wrapped  in  tissue  paper  and  the  pollen  of  the  variety  chosen  as 
the  male  parent  applied  to  the  stigmas  when  these  are  in  proper 
If)        condition.     As  soon  as  the  application  of  pollen  is  made  the 
heads  are  carefully  covered  to  keep  other  pollen  from  entering 
and   possibly  fertilizing   the   blossom.     (Kef.   9,   pp.   50-54.) 

20  The  resulting  seed  is  planted  and  the  crops  for  several  years 
are  subjected  to  rigid  selection  to  fix  the  variety.     (Refs.  6,  pp. 

21  69,70;  9,  pp.  44-49,  56,  57.) 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION. 

Although  wheat  is  grown  under  a  very  wide  range  of  climatic 
conditions,  the  bulk  of  the  world's  crop  is  produced  in  the 
temperate  zones.     The  quality  of  wheat  in  the  different  parts 

22  of  the  wrorld  changes  with  the  climate,  and  even  in  this  country 
wheat  of  different  quality  is  grown  in  the  various  wheat-pro- 
ducing sections.     (Ref.  6,  pp.  36,  37.) 

CHOICE  AND  PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL. 

Light  fertile  clay  and  medium  fertile  loam  soils  of  good 
depth  and  well  drained  are  best  adapted  to  wheat  culture. 
Heavy  clays  are  too  compact  and  are  inclined  to  bake,  while 
highly  fertile  loams  tend  to  lodge  the  crop.  Light  clay  soils 
have  the  proper  degree  of  compactness  and  are  sufficiently 
retentive  of  moisture  and  better  adapted  to  winter  wheat  and 
uniform  seasons  than  the  loams.  The  clay  soils  are  usually 
uplands,  while  the  loam  soils  are  either  lowlands  or  prairies. 
The  alluvial  soils  of  river  bottoms,  if  not  too  rich,  usually 
make  good  wheat  lands,  because  they  are  deep  and  fertile  and 
generally  made  up  of  clay,  sand,  and  humus  in  proportions, 
making  them  friable  and  porous  and  giving  good  drainage. 
The  loams  are  primarily  corn  lands,  but  in  connection  with 
corn  culture  are  wrell  suited   to  spring  wheat.     Very  light. 

No.  11 


11 


loose  or  sandy  soils  and  wet,  peaty,  sour  lands  arc  unfit  for  the 
wheat  crop. 

Drainage  is  necessary  to  a  profitable  development  of  the 
wheat  plant,  and  a  permeable  subsoil  is  especially  important 
during  the  most  active  stages  of  its  growth  and  to  winter  wheat 
also  in  the  late  fall  and  winter.  Where  the  subsoil  is  not 
sufficiently  permeable,  proper  drainage  should  be  provided  by 
putting  down  tile,  as  this  is  generally  the  most  satisfactory 
and  economical  method  of  draining.     (Ref.  14,  pp.  28-31.) 

The  character  of  the  soil  influences  the  yield  to  a  greater 
extent  than  it  affects  the  quality,  which  is  largely  controlled 
by  climatic  conditions.  That  the  two  factors  are  closely 
connected  is  shown  by  the  durum  wheats,  which  require  rich 
humus  soils  and  hot  and  dry  seasons.  Rich  soils  increase  the 
protein  content  of  the  grain  and  also  tend  to  increase  its 
hardiness. 

Land  for  wheat  should  be  plowed  several  weeks  before 
sowing  time  in  order  to  bring  about  the  most  favorable  condi- 
tions for  a  rapid  and  regular  germination  of  the  seed.  After 
plowing  the  soil  should  be  allowed  to  settle  and  the  moisture  23 
content  at  the  surface  to  increase  before  the  seed  is  sown.  By 
harrowing  or  disking  the  land  at  intervals  from  the  time  it  is  24 
plowed  until  it  is  seeded  down  weeds  are  destroyed  and  soil 
moisture  is  conserved,  while  the  seed  bed  is  made  smooth,  fine, 
and  even.  Numerous  small  clods  on  the  surface,  however, 
may  be  made  of  value  in  holding  the  snow  on  winter  wheat 
fields  and  in  preventing  or  reducing  soil  washing.  (Ref.  15, 
pp.  7-9.) 

Deep  plowing  is  not  of  general  value  and  often  seems  to 
affect  the  yield  of  straw  more  than  the  yield  of  grain.  Plowing 
from  4  to  6  inches  deep  is  adequate,  especially  if  the  land  is  in 
good  tilth.  Subsoiling  is  expensive  and  frequently  unprofit- 
able in  wheat  culture.  On  friable  and  mellow  soils  plowing  is 
unnecessary  if  the  land  was  well  cultivated  the  year  before  in 
connection  with  growing  corn.  On  such  land  a  seed  bed  can  be 
prepared  by  disking  or  cultivating  and  harrowing.  25 

If  the  plowing  is  done  when  it  is  too  wet  the  soil  is  likely  to 
harden  or  bake,  and  if  done  when  too  dry  the  ground  remains 
rough  and  lumpy.  It  should  be  remembered  that  in  growing 
wheat  and  other  similar  plants  the  tillage  of  the  crop,  as  it 
were,  is  performed  before  and  at  the  time  the  seed  is  sown. 
In  the  semiarid  regions  the  success  of  the  crop  depends  often 
entirely  upon  the  careful  and  thorough  cultural  treatment 
given  the  land.  (Refs.  5,  pp.  165-169;  16,  pp.  5,  6;  17,  pp. 
5-14.) 

No.  11 


12 


MANURING. 

The  fertility  of  wheat  land  may  be  maintained  and  improved 
by  the  use  of  barnyard  manure,  commercial  fertilizers,  and 
green  manure-,  and  by  proper  crop  rotations  and  fallowing. 
No  generally  applicable  rule  for  fertilizing  wheat  lands  can  be 
laid  down,   hut   certain   underlying  principles  are  operative 

everywhere.  Wheat  straw  contain-  approximately  (>.()  per- 
cent oi  nitrogen,  0.2  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  0.6  per 
cent  of  potash,  and  the  grain  about  2  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  0.85 

per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  0.55  per  cent  of  potash.  This 
means  that  a  ton  of  straw  removes  from  the  soil  12  pounds  of 

nitrogen,  4  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  12  pounds  of  pot- 
ash, and  a  ton  of  grain,  or  33}  bushels,  40  pounds  of  nitn 

17  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  11  pounds  of  potash.  As 
nitrogen  is  valued  approximately  at  in*  cent-  per  pound,  and 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  at  5  cents,  a  ton  of  straw  repre- 
sent- a  cash  value  of  SI. 92  for  nitrogen,  20  cents  for  phosphoric 

acid,  and  60  cents  for  potash,  or  a  total  of  s_'.7_>.  while  the 
essential  fertilizing  elements  contained  in  a  ton  of  the  grain 
would  cost  $6.40  for  nitrogen,  85  cents  lor  phosphoric  acid,  and 
55  cents  for  potash,  or  in  all  $7.80  if  bought  in  an  available 
form  in  commercial  fertilizers.  These  figures  call  attention  to 
the  importance  of  returning  at  least  the  straw  in  the  form  of 
manure  to  the  land  and  also  point  to  the  fact  that  continued 
wheat  growing  for  the  market  must  deplete  the  fertility  of  the 
soil.     (Ref.  18,  pp.  9-12.) 

Barnyard  manure  is  preferably  applied  to  the  corn  crop 
before  wheat.  (Ref.  19,  pp.  25-27.)  When  manure  is  directly 
applied  to  winter  wheat  it  should  be  spread  and  plowed  under 
immediately  after  the  preceding  crop  is  removed,  in  order  that 
it  may  become  well  embedded  in  the  soil  before  the  seed  is 
sown.  In  such  cases  the  use  of  10  tons  per  acre  is  sufficient 
and  will  generally  give  better  results  than  double  that  quan- 
tity. When  barnyard  manure  is  used  as  a  top-dressing  for 
wheat  it  should  be  well  rotted  and  finely  divided,  and  prefer- 
ably spread  with  a  wide-tired  manure  spreader.  On  most 
loams  and  alluvial  soils,  which  grow  wheat  in  rotation,  the  use 
of  barnyard  manure — especially  its  direct  use — is  unnecessary, 
but  on  light  clay  soils  it  often  proves  profitable. 

The  application  of  large  quantities  of  available  nitrogen, 
either  in  commercial  fertilizers  or  barnyard  manure,  usually 
results  in  a  heavy  growth  of  straw  and  a  consequent  tendency 
to  lodge1.  A  complete  fertilizer,  or  one  containing  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  i^  generally  to  be  recommended, 
and  while  no  rule  applicable  to  all  cases  can  be  laid  down,  the 
No.  ll 


13 


liar. 


use  of  300  to  500  pounds  of  a  fertilizer  mixture  furnishing  in 
plant  food  3.3  per  eent  of  nitrogen,  L2  per  cent  of  available 

phosphoric  acid,  and  4  per  cent  of  potash  is  quite  common. 
On  poor  soils  the  application  of  nitrogen  and  potash  may  be 
relatively  high,  while  on  soils  in  a  fairly  good  state  of  fertility 
the  phosphoric  acid  should  be  relatively  increased,  as  com- 
paratively large  quantities  of  this  substance  in  the  form  of 
superphosphate  or  soluble  phosphates  act  favorably  on  the 
crop  in  that  they  tend  to  prevent  or  reduce  lodging.  Com- 
mercial fertilizers  are  more  profitable  as  a  rule  on  clay  soils 
than  on  the  richer  loams,  and  throughout  the  western  wheal 
area  of  the  country  they  are  little  used.  Applications  of  25  to 
40  bushels  of  lime  per  acre  are  often  very  beneficial,  especially  26 
on  soils  treated  with  sulphate  and  chlorid  of  ammonia  for 
a  series  of  years.  (Ref.  20,  pp.  184-189.)  Top-dressings 
with  nitrate  of  soda  are  sometimes  given  after  the  crop  has 
made  some  growth,  but  if  the  plants  are  in  a  vigorous  condi- 
tion in  the  spring  no  top-dressing  is  necessary. 

Green  manuring  with  leguminous  crops  is  very  desirable,  but 
when  a  heavy  green  crop  is  plowed  under  it  is  best  to  follow  it 
with  a  hoed  crop  before  putting  the  land  into  wheat.  (Ref. 
21.)  Benefit  is  also  derived  when  leguminous  plants  are 
grown  before  wheat  and  other  crops  and  only  the  stubble  is 
plowed  under. 

Summer  fallowing,  which  is  seldom  followed  in  humid  sec- 
tions, is  practiced  quite  extensively  in  some  of  the  wheat 
regions  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  in  those  western  States  where 
dry  farming  methods  are  required.  (Ref.  22,  p.  21.)  To 
mature  profitable  crops  the  land  in  these  sections  requires  the 
rainfall  of  two  seasons,  and  hence  wheat  is  generally  grown  on 
land  which  has  had  a  season  of  rest  and  has  stored  up  suffi- 
cient moisture  to  supply  the  demands  of  the  crop.  Cultiva- 
tion of  the  summer  fallow  is  practiced  to  conserve  the  soil 
moisture  and  to  increase  the  store  of  available  plant  food 
which  reduces  the  water  requirements  of  crops.  (Ref.  23. 
p.  48.)  On  lands  which  receive  adequate  rainfall  summer 
fallow  can  not  be  as  profitable  as  the  culture  of  some  legumi- 
nous crop,  which  not  only  adds  nitrogen  and  humus  to  the 
soil,  but  also  prevents,  or  at  least  largely  reduces,  leaching. 
(Ref.  24,  p.  55.) 

SEED  AND  SEEDING. 

The  grains  of  seed  wheat  besides  being  all  of  one  variety 
should  also  be  heavy,  plump,  and  spherical,  and  free  from  dirt, 
weed  seeds,  and  injured  or  immature  kernels.    (Ref.  25,  p.  172.) 

No.  11 


14 

A  pure  variety  IS  always  to  be  preferred  to  a  mixture  of  varie- 
ties however  slight  this  may  be.     Heavy  seed  promotes  stool- 

ing   and    the    production   of  strong   plants,    and    benefits  yield 

and  quality  of  grain  as  well  as  yield  of  straw.     In  most  <•;, 

where  heavy  seed  has  heen  compared  with  small  or  light  seed. 

the  results  have  been  in  favor  of  the  heavy  seed.  Owing  to  an 
insufficient    food  supply  or  an   imperfectly  developed  germ, 

plant<  from  injured  and  immature  svvd  often  have  not  the 
power  to  live  although  the  seed  sprouts  quite  successfully.     If 

wheat  has  become  heated  or  moldy  in  storage  it  may  not  grow 
at  all  or  else  have  only  a  low  percentage  of  germination.      It  ifl 

advisable,  therefore,  to  make  a  germination  test  to  determine 

the  vitality  and  the  viability  of  the  seed.  This  may  be  done 
by  placing  the  kernels  between  folds  of  cloth  or  blotting  paper. 
one  end  of  which  is  placed  in  water  so  that  the  moisture  is  sup- 
plied through  capillarity,  and  by  keeping  this  improvised 
germinator  at  the  ordinary  room  temperature,  never  allowing 
it  to  fall  below  50°  F.  Wheat  cleaned  with  a  fanning  mill 
is  generally  used  for  seed,  but  a  much  better  way,  although 
little  practiced,  is  to  select  each  year  the  best  seeds  from  the 
best  plants  grown  on  a  special  seed  plat  to  be  used  for  planting 
the  seed  plat  of  the  following  season,  while  the  rest  of  the  seed- 
plat  crop  is  used  for  sowing  the  general  field.  (Refs.  26,  pp. 
8-11;  27,  pp.  313-320.) 

The  time  of  sowing  is  influenced  by  the  season,  the  variety, 
the  nature,  fertility,  and  altitude  of  the  soil,  the  latitude  of 
the  locality,  and  sometimes  by  the  prevalence  of  insect  ene- 
mies and  existing  weather  conditions.  In  the  northern  se<  - 
tions  winter  wheat  is  sown  earlier  and  spring  wheat  later.  In 
the  southern  winter  wheat  regions  the  seed  is  preferably  sown 
late  in  September  and  early  in  October;  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illi- 
nois, Iowa,  and  Nebraska  from  September  10  to  20;  and  in 
some  of  the  extreme  northern  winter  wheat  regions  as  early 
as  the  last  week  in  August  and  the  first  week  in  September. 
(Ref.  28,  p.  154.)  Spring  wheat  is  generally  sown  as  soon  in 
the  spring  as  the  seed  bed  can  be  properly  prepared. 

The  germination,  stooling  process,  and  underground  growth 
of  winter  wheat  take  place  when  the  temperature  is  from  42°  to 
50°  F.  When  these  soil  temperatures  prevail  during  winter  for 
a  sufficient  length  of  time,  winter  wheat  stools  and  produces 
underground  growth,  and  when  the  continued  warmer  weather 
of  spring  arrives  the  different  stems  shoot  upward  and  develop 
their  leaves  and  lengthen  their  internodes  rapidly. 

No.  11 


15 


View, 


The  depth  of  sowing  depends  mainly  upon  the  kind  of  soil 
and  its  physical  condition.  The  object  should  always  he  the 
provision  of  the  best  moisture  conditions  for  the  seed.  In 
moist  soils  or  soils  of  a  hard  texture  shallow  seeding  is  prac- 
ticed, while  in  loose  or  dry  soils  deeper  seeding  is  necessary. 
The  usual  depth  of  sowing  wheat  is  from  1  to  2  inches.  (Ref. 
28,  p.  153.)  When  the  seed  kernel  lies  deep  the  portion  of  the 
young  stem  connecting  it  with  the  crown  is  necessarily  longer 
than  when  it  lies  nearer  the  surface  of  the  ground,  as  in  the 
case  of  shallow  seeding.  If  at  any  time  through  the  action  of 
frost,  or  otherwise,  heaving  of  the  surface  soil  occurs,  the 
young  stem  may  be  broken  so  that  the  crown  and  other  parts 
of  the  plant  are  separated  from  the  primary  root  system.  This 
condition  is  detrimental  to  the  plant  if  it  occurs  before  the 
permanent  roots  are  large  enough  to  furnish  food  and  moisture 
as  the  maintenance  and  the  growth  of  the  plant  require  it. 

The  quantity  of  seed  used  per  acre  depends  upon  the  kind  of 
soil  and  its  physical  condition,  the  climate  and  the  season,  the 
time  and  method  of  sowing,  and  the  size,  quality,  and  variety 
of  the  seed.  As  a  general  rule  wheat  is  sown  thicker  on  poor 
soils,  stiff  and  cold  clay  lands,  and  rough  and  cloddy  seed 
beds  than  on  fertile  soils,  friable  loams,  and  fields  well  worked 
and  smoothed  before  seeding.  Late  sowing  and  broadcasting 
also  require  more  seed  than  early  sowing  and  drilling.  A 
large-grained  variety  requires  a  greater  quantity  of  seed  than 
a  fine-grained  sort,  and  a  variety  with  limited  stooling  capac- 
ity more  than  a  heavy  stooling  variety.  Generally  the  quantity 
of  seed  per  acre  varies  from  6  to  8  pecks,  but  in  dry-land  farm- 
ing as  a  rule  less  is  used.     (Refs.  28,  p.  156;  29,  p.  17.) 

There  are  two  common  methods  of  sowing  wheat,  viz,  drill- 
ing and  broadcasting.  Different  kinds  of  machines  are  used 
for  both  operations,  but  broadcasting  is  also  done  by  hand. 
Drilling  is  done  with  common  drills,  press  drills,  shoe-and- 
chain  drills,  disk  drills,  etc.  Each  method  has  its  advantages 
under  certain  conditions.  The  results  at  most  of  the  experi- 
ment stations  are  in  favor  of  drilling.  (Refs.  8,  p.  84;  30,  p.  29 
184.) 

Rolling  and  sometimes  harrowing  is  resorted  to  during  the 
early  stages  of  the  crop.  Late  rolling  and  late  harrowing  are 
often  injurious.  In  dry  climates  and  seasons  cultivation 
between  the  drills  is  sometimes  carried  on.  (Refs.  17,  p.  19; 
46,  pp.  1-19.) 

No.  11 


16 


CROP  ROTATIONS. 

The  place  of  wheat  in  the  crop  rotation  is  Largely  governed 
by  the  cleanness  of  the  soil,  the  adapt  ability  of  wheat  as  a 
nurse  crop  for  clover  and  grass,  the  possibility  of  either  fall 
ox  spring  Bowing,  the  comparatively  early  ripening  of  the  crop, 
the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  other  conditions,      (lief.  31 ,  p.  26.) 

Hoed  crops  and  summer  fallow,  especially  if  cultivated,  tend 
to  leave  a  greater  quantity  of  water  in  the  soil  than  growing 
broadcasted  and  uncultivated  crops,  such  as  the  small  grains. 
In  a  dry  season,  for  this  reason,  wheal  after  corn  or  cultivated 
summer  fallow  is  likely  to  give  a  much  better  yield  than  if 
grown  after  wheat  or  oats.  (Kef.  31,  pp.  25  50.)  On  some 
new  soils  wheat  is  sometimes  grown  for  several  years  in  suc- 
cession on  the  same  land,  but  continuous  cropping  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  after  a  scries  of  years  the  yields  begin 
to  decline,  and  rotation  experiments  have  clearly  indicated 
that  better  yields  are  obtained  from  soils  under  rotation  than 
those  growing  wheat  year  after  year.      (Ref.  32,  pp.  281-327.) 

IRRIGATION  AND  RAINFALL. 

Successful  wheat  culture  does  not  depend  so  much  upon  the 
total  annual  rainfall  as  it  does  upon  the  amount  of  moisture 
the  soil  furnishes  the  crop  during  the  growing  period.  The 
total  rainfall  in  some  of  the  wheat-growing  localities  of  the 
West  and  Northwest  ranges  annually  from  12  to  18  inches, 
which  falls  mainly  during  the  winter,  and  yet  good  crops  are 
produced  without  irrigation,  while  in  other  sections  the  same 
amount  of  rainfall  is  insuflicient  for  a  profitable  yield.  Again, 
in  many  humid  regions  which  have  a  yearly  precipitation  of 
as  high  as  40  inches,  the  water  runs  off  in  the  drainage,  and  less 
than  half  of  the  total  precipitation  is  available  to  the  growing 
plants.  The  question,  therefore,  is  not  alone  how  much  rain- 
fall there  is,  but  how  much  of  it  is  retained  by  the  soil  for  the 
use  of  the  crop.  The  relation  of  rainfall  to  wheat  culture  is 
largely  a  question  of  soil  conditions.  It  is  a  significant  fact 
that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  wheat  of  the  world,  as  well 
as  a  superior  quality  of  grain,  is  produced  in  rather  dry  regions 
or  on  lands  subject  to  extremes  of  temperature  and  drought. 
And  it  is  further  worthy  of  note  that  most  of  the  States  in 
which  semiarid  conditions  prevail  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
record  a  much  higher  average  yield  per  acre  than  humid  wheat- 
growing  States  in  both  spring  and  winter  grain.     (Ref.  33.) 

Wherever  or  whenever  the  rainfall  is  deficient,  irrigation 
generally  insures  a  crop  and  secures  larger  yields  and  better 

No.  n 


17 


View. 


grain.  It  must  be  practiced  judiciously,  however,  to  be  suc- 
cessful. (Refs.  23,  pp.  33-44;  34,  pp.  4-8,  11.)  Furrow  irri-  30 
gation  is  considered  best  in  some  sections  and  flooding  in 
others.  (Ref.  35,  pp.  62,  72,  90.)  Irrigation  sometimes  has  a  31 
marked  influence  on  the  composition  of  the  grain.  (Ref.  36.)  32 
At  the  time  the  kernel  is  filling  out  the  soil  should  be  properly 
supplied  with  moisture  to  promote  the  production  of  full  and 
plump  grain.  Too  much  water  at  this  period  has  a  tendency 
to  yellow  the  crop,  retard  its  maturity,  and  to  lower  the  yield. 
Fall  irrigation  of  winter  wheat  has  been  found  beneficial  when 
the  soil  lacked  moisture  for  the  production  of  the  necessary 
fall  growth.  One  or  two  irrigations  are  sufficient  for  winter 
wheat  in  the  spring.  The  custom  in  Egypt,  where  irrigation 
is  commonly  practiced,  is  to  irrigate  when  the  plants  are  about 
1  foot  high  and  again  when  they  begin  to  bloom.  When  the 
water  is  applied  in  the  evening,  about  sunset,  the  evaporation 
from  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  much  less  than  when  it  is  applied 
during  the  day,  and  it  also  frequently  results  in  a  higher  yield 


of  straw  and  grain. 


HARVESTING. 


The  time  of  harvesting  wheat  is  mostly  controlled  by  the 
latitude  and  the  seasons.  The  world  over,  wheat  is  harvested 
in  every  month  of  the  }Tear.  In  general  practice  wheat  is  cut 
when  the  heads  have  turned  yellow  but  while  the  stems  are 
still  slightly  green  and  the  kernel  in  the  hard-dough  stage.  In 
the  greater  portion  of  the  wheat-producing  area  of  this  country 
harvesting  must  be  done  in  from  eight  to  ten  days  to  prevent 
losses  from  shattering,  but  varieties  grown  in  some  sections, 
such  as  the  club  wheats  in  the  Pacific  Coast  States,  may  be  left 
standing  for  several  weeks  when  ripe  without  danger  of  shat- 
tering. (Ref.  8,  pp.  102-104.)  The  state  of  ripening  influ- 
ences the  composition  of  the  plant.  The  dry  matter  in  the 
entire  plant  increases  up  to  maturity  and  the  kernel  increases 
in  starch  content  as  it  develops.      (Ref.  8,  p.  104.) 

In  most  countries  harvesting  is  now  largely  accomplished        33 
by  means  of  the  self-binder,  although  the  self-rake  reaper  and        34 
the  combined  harvester  and  thrasher  are  also  used.     In  sec-        35 
tions  where  labor  is  cheap  and  the  machines  costly,  cutting        36 
with  the  cradle  and  binding  by  hand  are  still  practiced.     Im- 
mediately after  cutting  and  binding  the  sheaves  are  put  up 
into  shocks  to  protect  them  against  dew,  rain,  and  the  sun, 
and  to  facilitate  curing  and  ripening  in  the  shock.     Round 
shocks  usually  contain  from  12  to  16  sheaves,  of  which  2  are 

No.  11 


is 


used  as  a  cap  or  cover.  Long  shock-  arc  made  by  placing  L2 
or  l  l  sheaves  as  pairs  in  a  row,  and  arc  used  when  the  shea 

are  wei  to  facilitate  rapid  and  thorough  drying.  (Kefs.  6;  8, 
pp.  loi    L09;  22.) 

After  shocking  the  crop  is  either  kepi  until  thrashing  or  it 
is  -tacked  when  sufficiently  dry  and  thrashed  later  on.  Stack- 
ing is  to  be  preferred,  because  it  is  a  great  safeguard  against 
injury  to  the  crop  through  had  weather.  In  a  stack  properly 
built  there  is  a  slant  from  any  point  in  the  interior  toward 
the  outride.  A  few  day-  alter  stacking  a  slight  beating  of  the 
stacked  grain,  commonly  called  sweating,  Bets  in  and  this 
condition  may  continue  for  one  or  two  week-.  If  the  wheat  i- 
not  allowed  to  sweat  in  the  stack  the  thrashed  grain  sweat- 
ill  the  hin. 

As  in  the  methods  of  harvesting,  so  in  the  methods  of  thrash- 

:JT        big  great    changes   have   taken  place.     In  former  times   the 

Hail   was  used   and   the  grain   was  also   trodden  out   by  horses 

or  oxen.     To-day  thrashing  machines  are  operated  by  horse, 

38  steam,  and  electric  power.  There  has  also  been  a  great  im- 
provement in  machines,  the  largest  recent  improved  outfits 
under  favorable  conditions  being  capable  of  turning  out  a- 
much  as  2, 000  bushels  in  one  day.  while  formerly  from  500  to 
600  bushels  was  considered  a  good  day's  run.     (Ref.  8,  p.  109.) 

STORAGE. 

39  In  storing  wheat  the  object  should  be  to  keep  it  dry  and  to 

40  prevent  insect  depredations.     (Refs.  8,  pp.  109-111;   37,  pp. 

41  17-20.)     Stored  wheat  often  changes  in  weight.     (Ref.   38, 

42  pp.  11,  12.) 

THE  USES  OF  WHEAT. 

The  principal  value  of  wheat  lies  in  its  use  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  flour  for  bread  and  pastry.  (Ref.  39,  pp.  347-:J<»- 
The  flour  of  durum  wheat,  generally  richer  in  gluten  than  the 
flour  of  bread  wheats,  is  used  for  macaroni,  spaghetti,  and  other 
pastes.  The  by-products  of  the  mill  are  used  for  feeding  pur- 
poses and  the  chaff  and  straw  for  feed  and  bedding.  (Ref.  8, 
pp.  112-121.)  Winter  wheat  is  also  pastured.  (Ref.  40,  pp. 
18-21.) 

DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES. 

43  The  most  common  diseases  of  wheat  are  the  rusts  and  smuts, 
and  the  most  common  insect  enemies  the  chinch  bug  and  the 

1  1        Hessian  fly.     The  common  rusts  are  the  orange-leaf  rust  (Puc- 

No.  n 


19 


View. 


cinia  rubigo-vera)  and  the  black  rust  (P.  graminis).     (Refs.  41, 

pp.  67-69;  42,  p.  6.)     The  most  injurious  smut  is  the  stinking 

smut  or  bunt   (Tilletia  fatens).     The  loose   smut    (Ustilago        45 

tritici)  is  much  less  injurious  than  the  stinking  smut.     (Ref.  43, 

pp.  15,  16.)     Injuries  to  the  wheat  crop  from  the  chinch  bug 

and  the  Hessian  fly  are  often  very  extensive.     (Ref.  44,  pp. 

6-22.) 

PRODUCTION,  YIELDS,  AND  STATISTICS. 

The  average  yield  of  wheat  for  the  years  1897  to  1906,  inclu- 
sive, in  different  countries  is  as  follows:  United  Kingdom 
32.2,  Germany  28,  France  19.8,  Austria  17.8,  Hungary  17.6, 
United  States  13.8,  and  Russia  9.2  bushels  per  acre.  In  1908 
the  United  States  produced  437,908,000  bushels  of  winter 
wheat  on  30,349,000  acres,  the  average  yield  being  14.4 
bushels  per  acre,  and  of  spring  wheat  226,694,000  bushels  on 
17,208,000  acres,  the  average  production  being  13.2  bushels 
per  acre.  (Ref.  33.)  In  1905  Ireland  grew  37.8  bushels  per 
acre;  Great  Britain,  the  same  year,  33.8  bushels;  Belgium,  in 
1904,  35.1  bushels;  and  the  Netherlands,  in  1904,  31.1  bushels. 
These  average  yields  indicate  that  a  large  number  of  growers 
raised  40,  50,  and  even  60  bushels  to  the  acre.  A  comparison 
of  the  average  yields  in  the  United  States  and  of  these  coun- 
tries, together  with  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  prevailing 
here  and  abroad,  would  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  same 
high  yields  can  be  secured  in  many  sections  of  this  country 
provided  the  same  care  is  given  to  the  selection  of  the  variety, 
the  seed,  and  the  tillage  of  the  soil.     (Ref.  45.) 

No.  11 


APPENDIX. 


LANTERN   SLIDES. 

No.  of 

\  i.u  . 

1.  Cross  sections  of  wheat  grains,  showing  embryo  and  endosperm. 

View  famished  by  Minnesota  station. 

2.  Wheat  roots. 

View  farnished  by  North  Dakota  Station. 

3.  Different  typ«  of  wheat  stems. 

From  r.  B.  Dept  Agr.,  Bureau  of  riant  Industry  BoL  47,  PL  V,  BgS.  ].  2,  and  3. 

4.  Stems  of  different  Lengths. 

View  tarnished  by  Tennessee  Station. 

5.  Sheath,  auricle,  and  ligules. 

From  0.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Bui.  47,  PL  III,  fig.  1. 

6.  The  distribution  of  leaves  and  the  length  of  the  internodes. 

View  furnished  by  Tennessee  Station. 

7.  The  rachis. 

\  iVw  furnished  by  Tennessee  Station. 

8.  Crowded  and  open  heads  and  types  of  spikes. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Bui.  47,  PL  III,  fig.  2. 

9.  Spikelets. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Bui.  47,  PL  IV,  and  PL  V,  figs.  13  to  19, 

Inclusive. 

10.  Reproductive  organs  of  wheat. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Vegetable  Pathology  and  Physiology  Bui.  29,  fig.  15. 

11.  Different  types  of  wheat  grains. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Bui.  47,  PL  V,  figs.  4  to  12,  inclusive. 

12.  Grains  of  different  varieties:  No.  1,  Red  Fife  from  North  Dakota:  No.  2,  Zim- 

merman from  Kansas;  No.  3,  Turkey  Red  from  Kansas;  No.  4,  Fultz  from 
Nebraska;  No.  5,  Glyndon  (638)  from  North  Dakota;  No.  6,  Rieti  from  Italy. 
View  furnished  by  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Grain  Investigations. 

13.  Grains  of  different  species  of  Triticum:  No.  13,  Polish  wheat;  No.  14.  Einkorn; 

No.  15,  Black  Velvet  emmer;  No.  16,  Red  Winter  Club  spelt;  No.  17,  Yolo; 
No.  18,  En  grain  double. 
View  furnished  by  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Grain  Investigations. 

14.  Heads  and  grains  of  durum  wheat. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Bui.  3,  PL  II. 

15.  Soft  and  hard  wheats. 

View  furnished  by  Minnesota  Station. 

16.  Removing  the  stamens  from  the  blossom. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Vegetable  Pathology  and  Physiology  Bui.  29,  fig.  18. 

17.  Breaking  of  pollen  sacks. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Vegetable  Pathology  and  Physiology  Bui.  29,  fig.  1G. 

18.  Removing  undesirable  flowers. 

From  V.  S.  Dept  Agr.,  Vegetable  Pathology  and  Physiology  Bui.  20,  fig.  17. 

1!>.     Growing  the  first  seed  from  hybrids. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Vegetable  Pathology  and  Physiology  Bui.  29.  PL  III.  fig.  2. 

20.     Emasculating  and  cross-pollinating  wheat  flowers. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Vegetable  Pathology  and  Physiology  Bui.  29,  PL  III,  fig.  1. 
No.  11  (20) 


21 

No.  of 
view. 

21.  Variation  in  size  of  head. 

View  furnished  by  Tennessee  Station. 

22.  Map  showing  the  distribution  of  different  types  of  wheat  within  the  United 

States. 
From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Vegetable  Pathology  and  Physiology  Bui.  21,  frontispiece. 

23.  Plowing  wheat  land. 

View  furnished  by  Minnesota  Station. 

24.  Disking  wheat  land. 

View  furnished  by  Minnesota  Station. 

25.  Disking  cornstalk  ground  for  wheat. 

View  furnished  by  Minnesota  Station. 

26.  Liming  land. 

From  Ohio  Station  Bui.  159. 

27.  Testing  seed  wheat. 

From  North  Dakota  Station  15th  Ann.  Rpt. 

28.  Germination  of  plump  and  shrunken  seed  wheat. 

From  California  Bui.  181. 

29.  Drilling  wheat. 

View  furnished  by  Minnesota  Station. 

30.  Furrow  method  of  irrigating  wheat. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  104,  PI.  VIII,  fig.  2. 

31.  Effect  of  irrigation  on  the  composition  of  wheat. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  for  1906,  PI.  X. 

32.  Appearance  of  grains  of  different  hardness  and  composition. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  for  1906,  PI.  XI. 

33.  Self-binders  at  work. 

From  Minnesota  Station  Bui.  62. 

34.  Combined  harvester  operated  by  horses. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Statistics  Bui.  20,  PI.  I. 

35.  Combined  harvester  operated  with  steam  power. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Statistics  Bui.  20,  PI.  IV. 

36.  Cradling  wheat. 

View  furnished  by  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Grain  Investigations. 

37.  A  primitive  method  of  thrashing  wheat. 

View  furnished  by  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Grain  Investigations. 

38.  Modern  thrashing  outfit. 

From  Minnesota  Station  Bui.  62,  fig.  277. 

39.  Sacked  wheat  stored  in  the  open. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Statistics  Bui.  20,  PI.  VII. 

40.  A  Chicago  grain  elevator. 

View  furnished  by  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Grain  Investigations. 

41.  A  Canadian  grain  elevator. 

View  furnished  by  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Grain  Investigations. 

42.  Grain  elevator,  Manchester,' England. 

View  furnished  by  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Grain  Investigations. 

43.  Wheat  heads  and  straw,  showing  rust. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  219,  fig.  4. 

44.  Effect  of  rust  on  wheat  grains. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  219,  fig.  3. 

45.  Shrinking  of  grains  due  to  rust. 

From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  219,  figs.  1,  2, 5,  and  6. 
No.  11 


22 

REFERENCES. 

l    Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants.     DeCandolle. 

2.  Nature  and  Development  of  Plants.    C.  C.  Curtis. 

ricultural  Botany.    John  Percival. 
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8.  Cereals  in  America.    Thos.  I".  Hunt. 

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23.  Factors  Influencing  Evaporation  and  Transpiration.     Utah  Sta.  Bui.  105. 

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25.  The  Selection  of  Seed  Wheat .     ( ialifornia  Sta.  Bui.  181. 

26.  Experiment  Si  at  ion  Work,  VII.     U.  S.  Dept.  Alt..  Farmers'  Bui.  84. 

27.  Plant  Breeding  for  Farmers.     X.  Y.  Cornell  Sta.  Bui.  251. 

28.  Small  Grain  Crops.     Kansas  Sta.  Bui.  141. 

29.  Experiment  Station  Work,  XXXVI.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  262. 

30.  Field  Experiments  with  Wheat,  Oats,  and  Barley.     Ft  ah  Sta.  Bui.  56. 

31.  Crop  Rotation  for  South  Dakota.     South  Dakota  Sta.  Bui.  79. 

32.  The  Rotation  of  Crops.     Minnesota  Sta.  Bui.  109. 

33.  Statistics  in  Yearbooks  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

34.  Duty  of  Water.     Wyoming  Sta.  Bui.  67. 

35.  The  Right  Way  to  Irrigate.     Utah  Sta.  Bui.  86. 

36.  The  Effect  of  Climatic  Conditions  on  the  Composition  of  Durum  Wheat.     U.  8. 

Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  (1906)  Paper  417. 
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38.  Experiment  Station  Work,  XX.     U.  S.  Dept.  Alt..  Fanners'  Bui.  149. 

39.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1903. 

40.  Wheat  Growing.     Oklahoma  Sta.  Bui.  65.  , 

41.  Cereal    Rusts  of  the  United  States.     I".   S.   Dept.   Agr..    Division  of  Vegetable 

Physiology  and  Pathology  Bui.  16. 

12.  Lessons  from  the  Grain  Rust  Epidemic  of  1904.     U.  S.  Dept.  Alt..  Farmers'  Bui. 

219. 

43.  The  Prevention  of  Wheat  Smut  and  Loose  Smut  of  Oat-.     U.  S.  Dept. 

Fanners'  Bui.  250. 

44.  [nsecl  Enemies  of  Growing  Wheat.    I".  B.  Dept.  Alt..  Fanners'  Bui.  132. 

lltivation  of  Small  Grains.     Nebraska  Sta.  Bui.  104. 
No.  11 

o 


